Pregnant women who do not eat breakfast tend to have lower levels of cortisol in the morning during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy, suggesting a link between skipping this meal and a reduced stress hormone response upon waking.

Pregnant women in their second trimester who skip breakfast show a larger daily fluctuation in cortisol levels compared to those who eat breakfast, which may indicate a stronger but less stable pattern of stress hormone release.

Pregnant women who do not eat breakfast tend to go to bed and wake up later and prefer evening activities, which may reflect a general shift in their daily biological rhythm rather than just a choice about meals.

When people skip dinner during time-restricted eating, evening cortisol levels tend to be lower; when they skip breakfast, morning cortisol levels tend to be lower. This suggests that when meals are eaten during the day affects the natural daily pattern of cortisol, potentially reflecting changes in stress hormone regulation.

Chronic skipping of breakfast disrupts circadian rhythms, leading to dysregulation of cortisol secretion and impaired insulin sensitivity.

In healthy pregnant women, eating over a longer period of time during the day is linked to lower levels of melatonin at night, but only in the third trimester, suggesting that how meals affect sleep hormones changes as pregnancy advances.